Four Approaches to Information Technology Infrastructure Investment

FOUR APPROACHES TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENT Presented by: Kemeasoudei Fanama (u0856287) WHAT IS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY? Information technology is defined as the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer- based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware. IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, transmit, process, protect and securely retrieve information. APPROACHES TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENT 1.Fundamental Approach: The basic tenets of the fundamental approach, which is perhaps most commonly advocated by investment professionals, are as follows: There is an intrinsic value of a security and this depends upon underlying economic (fundamental) factors. The intrinsic value can be established by a penetrating analysis of the fundamental factors relating to the company, industry, and economy. At any given point of time, there are some securities for which the prevailing market price would differ from the intrinsic value.Sooner or later, of course, the market price would fall in line with the intrinsic value. ? ? ? Superior returns can be earned by buying under-valued securities (securities whose intrinsic value exceeds the market price) and selling over-valued securities (securities whose intrinsic value is less than the market price). APPROACHES TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENT (continued) 2. Psychological Approach: The psychological approach is based on the premise that stock prices are guided by emotion, rather than reason.Stock prices are believed to be influenced by the psychological mood of the investors. When greed and euphoria sweep the market, prices rise to dizzy heights. On the other hand, when fear and despair envelop the market, prices fall to abysmally low levels. Since psychic values appear to be more important than intrinsic values, the psychological approach suggests t hat it is more profitable to analyse how investors tend to behave as the market is swept by waves of optimism and pessimism which seem to alternate. The psychological approach has been described vividly as the ‘castles-in-air’ theory by Burton G.Malkiel. Those who subscribe to the psychological approach or the ‘castles-in-the-air’ theory generally use some form of technical analysis which is concerned with a study of internal market data, with a view to developing trading rules aimed at profit-making. The basic premise of technical analysis is that there are certain persistent and recurring patterns of price movements, which can be discerned by analysing market data. Technical analysts use a variety of tools like bar chart, point and figure chart, moving average analysis, breadth of market analysis, etc.APPROACHES TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENT (continued) 3. Academic Approach: Over the last five decades or so, the academic community ha s studied various aspects of the capital market, particularly in the advanced countries, with the help of fairly sophisticated methods of investigation. While there are many unresolved issues and controversies stemming from studies pointing in different directions, there appears to be substantial support for the following tenets. Stock markets are reasonably efficient in reacting quickly and rationally to the flow of information.Hence, stock prices reflect intrinsic value fairly well. Put differently: Market price = Intrinsic value Stock price behaviour corresponds to a random walk. This means that successive price changes are independent. As a result, past price behaviour cannot be used to predict future price behaviour. In the capital market, there is a positive relationship between risk and return. More specifically, the expected return from a security is linearly related to its systematic risk. Stock price behaviour corresponds to a random walk. This means that successive price changes are independent.As a result, past price behaviour cannot be used to predict future price behaviour. In the capital market, there is a positive relationship between risk and return. More specifically, the expected return from a security is linearly related to its systematic risk APPROACHES TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENT (continued) 4. ? Eclectic Approach: The eclectic approach draws on all the three different approaches discussed above. The basic premises of the eclectic approach are as follows: Fundamental analysis is helpful in establishing basic standards and benchmarks.However, since there are uncertainties associated with fundamental analysis, exclusive reliance on fundamental analysis should be avoided. Equally important, excessive refinement and complexity in fundamental analysis must be viewed with caution. ? Technical analysis is useful in broadly gauging the prevailing mood of investors and the relative strengths of supply and demand forces. How ever, since the mood of investors can vary unpredictably excessive reliance on technical indicators can be hazardous.More important, complicated technical systems should ordinarily be regarded as suspect because they often represent figments of imagination rather than tools of proven usefulness. The market is neither as well ordered as the academic approach suggests, nor as speculative as the psychological approach indicates. While it is characterised by some inefficiencies and imperfections, it seems to react reasonably efficiently and rationally to the flow of information. Likewise, despite many instances of mispriced securities, there appears to be a fairly strong correlation between risk and return. ? THANK YOU!!!

Engineering Students Towards Engineering Drawing Education Essay

The attitude of technology pupils towards technology drawing was studied in this research under pupils ‘ position of their coachs ‘ instruction manner, schoolroom environment, single perceptual experiences and features, pre-knowledge of the class and survey stuffs. This questionnaire-based cross sectional study survey of 2nd to 5th twelvemonth technology pupils of the four Departments ( Civil, Mechanical, Electrical and Agricultural ) in the College of Engineering of Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta was conducted in 2012. The consequence showed that the pupils have positive attitude towards technology drawing but for the teaching manner of the instructors. It was recommended that instructors of technology drawing should be interested in the topics that they teach, be able to emphasis the demand of the topic to the pupils and see the success of their pupils of import. Keywords: pupils, technology, attitude, pullingIntroductionCommunication accomplishments and good presentation ability are indispensable for an applied scientist who aspires to transport out his/her professional pattern in the planetary sphere ( Riemer, 2002 ) . The ability to interchange thoughts, understand others ‘ positions, work out jobs and successfully use the stairss and procedures presented depends significantly on how effectual one is able to pass on with others ( Windle and Warren, 1999 ) . Graphic linguistic communication normally found among proficient professionals for communicating of thoughts and information from one individual to another is technology pulling ( Thomas et. al. , 1993 ) . This is used to clearly and briefly pass on all the information necessary to transform an thought or a construct into world. It contains in writing representation of its topic, dimensions, notes and specifications ( Taffesse and Kassa, 2005 ) . Engineering artworks design and bu ilding might every bit good be the most of import class of all surveies for technology or proficient calling. This is so because it is used by interior decorators, technicians, sanitarians and applied scientists to pass on designs and building inside informations among the members of these professions. The graphics is written in the signifier of drawings that represent the form, size, and specifications of physical objects. It is read by construing drawings so that physical objects can be constructed precisely as originally conceived by the interior decorator ( Taffesse and Kassa, 2005 ) .Design theoretical accountIn design procedure, working with design theoretical account is cardinal construct to the interior decorator. The design theoretical account is the reproduction of the theoretical account to be design. This theoretical account could be an abstraction that a interior decorator thought out, convey it on paper in study and/or note signifier, carry out some computations on it, bring forth elaborate formal technology drawings in 2D/3D position either conventionally or computing machine aided through to physical paradigms. The interior decorator uses the theoretical account of design to record and develop thoughts and to supply a footing to measure the design ( Sharma, 2009 ) . In the instance of larger design undertakings where more than one applied scientist is involved, design theoretical accounts are utilised to pass on and show thoughts between all those concerned with the merchandise design, development, industry and usage ( Sharma, 2009 ) . These accomplishments are needed by interior decorator generate and work with this theoretical account in order to efficaciously pass on thoughts and develop a design ( Sharma, 2009 ) . Engineering drawings are used in many different applications. For case, Surveyors, civil applied scientists, sanitarians use technology drawings to document such plants as the layout of a new subdivisions, or the marker of the bou ndaries for a piece of belongings. Contractors and building forces use proficient drawings as their bluish prints in change overing architectural and technology designs in to world ( Taffesse and Kassa, 2005 ) .AttitudeEveryone desires good consequences from our attempts. Most people are willing to set in their best to accomplish the success and felicity they want. Everyone has the capacity to set in 1s unconditioned potencies into action to get what one desire. But one thing that determines the extent to which one passionately acquire involved in one ‘s enterprise and maximise one ‘s possible to bring forth the quality of the consequence one receive is attitude ( Rohn, 2000 ) . Attitude is a mental province that pre-disposes a individual to move in a certain manner towards the attitude object ( Oppenheim, 1992 ; Sudman, and Bradburn, 1982 ; Oskamp, 1991 ) . When pupils have positive attitude towards a peculiar capable country they tend to show that by systematically put ing more clip and attempt in that capable country by assisting themselves through seeking extra acquisition chances to do up for whatever oversights they may be holding ( Lindquist, 1980 ) . Surveies carried out by Simpson, 1978 and Young, 1998 supposed that positive attitudes towards prescribed larning activities and stuffs by and large facilitate the accomplishment of the coveted acquisition results. Researches In instruction, suggests that pupil attitudes toward a capable country lead to academic success ( Popham, 2005 ; Royster, Harris, & A ; Schoeps, 1999 ) People ‘s attitude can be affected by unwilled misinformation provided from a negative beginnings of influence by voluntary entry ( Rohn, 2000 ) . Everyone influences and is being influenced from clip to clip. However, one determines the extent of one influenced and to which one is influenced. The factors that have positive strong influence on our attitudes are personality, environment, word look, avowal, self image, a ssociation, physical visual aspect ( Eromon, 2010 ) . Research carried out by Goodykoontz, 2008 on factors that affect college pupils ‘ attitude toward mathematics inferred that pupil attitudes are largely affected by four external factors: the instructor, learning manner, schoolroom environment, and appraisals and accomplishment. Additionally, one internal factor that besides affect pupil attitude, is single perceptual experiences and features. By and large talking, technology drawing is a topic that is frequently disliked may be due to clip involved, back interrupting strivings as pupils describe it, enormous work load, deficiency of spacial ability, inability to acquire the preciseness of dimensions, deficiency of cognition of the importance or kernel of the class etc. Undergraduate pupils of Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta are non left out of this tendency of complain which in bend show in their public presentations. Relationship between pupil attitudes and acc omplishment degrees, in some peculiar surveies have suggested that accomplishment degrees have a causal influence on pupil attitudes ( Hannula, 2002 ; Tapia & A ; Marsh, 2001 ; Lopez, Lent, Brown, & A ; Gore, 1997 ; Midgley, Feldlaufer, & A ; Eccles, 1989 ) Academic attainments in establishments of higher acquisition can be considered as an result of two factors: the first is the single properties and the 2nd factor is the systems of instruction and forms of leaving cognition that are organized within schools ( Akinleke, 2012 ) . This survey intends to happen out the effects of both factors as it relates to technology pupils ‘ academic public presentation in technology drawingMaterials and MethodsThis questionnaire based cross-sectional survey of 2nd to 5th twelvemonth technology pupils of Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria was conducted in 2012. Second to 5th twelvemonth technology pupils were chosen for the survey to guarantee that participant has at least completed a subdivision in his/her university instruction. All the technology pupils in the four sections ; mechanical, electrical, civil and agricultural technology of the school were included. The sample covered all the pupils who were present at the techno logy pupils ‘ conference of the college of technology. The questionnaire was distributed and collected at the terminal of the same twenty-four hours. However the pupils that were absent for any ground during the twenty-four hours of the survey were excluded from the survey. A sum of 200 questionnaires were distributed. The ego administered questionnaire assessed information on human ecology, pupils ‘ position of their coachs learning manner, schoolroom environment, single perceptual experiences and features, pre-knowledge of the class and survey stuffs. Engagement in this research was voluntary and no inducement was offered. Informed consent was obtained from participants after being informed about anon. nature and aim of the survey. Data analysis was done utilizing statistical bundle for societal scientific discipline ( SPSS version 16.0 ) . and trial of significance was considered important was done with qis square statistics. P & lt ; 0.05 was considered important.Con sequences and treatmentsOf the 200 questionnaires distributed, 152 questionnaires out the returned 1s were considered appropriate for this survey. Incomplete questionnaires were rejected. The 152 returned questionnaires gave an overall retrieval rate of 76 % . The retrieval rate for respondents in 200 degree was 30.3 % ( 46 ) , 300 degree was 36.8 % ( 56 ) , 400 degree was 14.5 % ( 22 ) and 500 degree was 18.5 % ( 28 ) . While Civil, Mechanical, Electrical and Agricultural Engineering Departments are 16.4 % , 27.6 % , 30.9 % and 25.0 % severally. About nine-tenth ( 88.8 % ) of the respondents are males while staying ( 11.2 % ) are females ( table 1 ) . Majority ( 97.4 % ) of the respondents were in technology as their pick while 13.8 % out the 97.4 % are non in their country of involvement. These consequences showed that bulk of the pupils liked technology drawing ( 75.7 % ) while really few pupils 12.5 % did non like it from the first twenty-four hours the class was taught. More th an three-quarters-86.8 % ( 132/152 ) did non see technology drawing as a hard topic while 2.6 % ( 4/152 ) and 10.5 % ( 16/152 ) do n't cognize and make severally see it as a hard topic. As the acquisition progresses 67.8 % still did non develop any hate for the class while 15.1 % and 17.1 % developed hatred for the class and indecisive about the class severally ( tabular arraies 2 and 3 ) . As an applied scientist, one is trained in technology drawing to assist one transform an thought or a construct in to world, communicate designs and building inside informations to others, show constructs and simplify complex 3-d constructions which is a pre-requisite in any watercourse in the field of technology. On the inquiry â€Å" are you cognizant that the cognition of technology will be relevant to you as an applied scientist † 145 pupils stand foring 95.4 % reported the cognition of the importance of technology drawing to them as applied scientists, while 3 and 4 pupils stand forin g 2 % and 2.6 % of those who were nescient and cloudy ( tabular arraies 2 and 3 ) . Less than half- ( 44.1 % ) of the respondents offered proficient pulling during their secondary instruction which is the preliminary of technology pulling ethic. One-fifth ( 20.4 % ) of the respondents had information of what the class is all about and 18.4 % of the respondents reported being present at the official debut of the class ( table 4 ) . Detailed technology drawings are produced with the assistance of some particular instruments and/or equipment. Without the assistance of such tools it would hold been really hard for most people to fix technology drawings harmonizing to the general recognized standards/specifications ( Ballegu and Mpagalile ) . On the inquiry â€Å" Do you hold all the instrument needed for the drawing † 77 pupils stand foring 50.7 % reported being good equipped with the necessary drawing instruments. These instruments were provided by the pupils themselves 110 ( 72 .4 % ) ( table 4 ) . Good instruments are vehicle in technology drawing for communicating of designs and building inside informations to others. It is ever thwarting when an thought is at that place but the instrument for conveyance is defective, misfunctioning or non available. This thwarts a whole batch of thrust and thought and perchance shackles the flair for technology drawing. Learning environment is really important in sound instruction and larning procedure ( Kenpro, 2010 ) . A typical schoolroom should heighten effectual acquisition. This will engender more positive attitudes toward technology drawing, achieve more and manifest better outlining quality throughout their calling as applied scientists if the acquisition ambiance is really contributing. On the inquiry â€Å" Do you hold contributing auditorium for categories † 118 pupils stand foring 77.6 % agreed that their drawing studio is contributing with 63.8 % of them admiting that they ever get infinite for their drawings boards during pulling categories. A sum of 130 pupils stand foring 85.5 % alleged that they are adequate seats for everyone member of the category while 11 pupils stand foring 7.6 % complained that their schoolroom is crowded ( table 5 ) . There are bound of the figure of pupils under the attention and control of a instructor which if exceeded will ensue in deficient and effectual preparation and acquisition. There may besides be terrible disciplinary jobs, and some pupils might be threatened. All pupils should be treated every bit in order to file away effectual acquisition in schools ( New Arrivals Excellence Program Guide, 2007 ) .A About 44 pupils stand foring 28.9 % of the pupils complained that the entire figure of pupils in a category per category period is excessively much for a instructor to pull off. In making an effectual acquisition environment ( table 5 ) , the coach should hold thorough cognition of their topics and should be interested in the topics that the y teach, be able to unwrap the necessity for their topics, and see the success of their pupils of import ( Kenpro, 2010 ) . Teaching pupils is non ever about what is covered per period but how much the cognition that has been efficaciously passed on to them. A image is worth a 1000 words, and sometimes the easiest manner to show something is with an image. This holds true for technology, with technology drawings supplying an easy to understand graphical illustration of something which has been designed by an applied scientist. The drawings may stand for unsmooth bill of exchanges for an object which has non yet been produced, with the drawings being used to research how the point should be made, and they can besides document the procedure of doing or utilizing an point, or merely exemplify how something is supposed to look. The inquiries that assessed the position of pupils on their instructors ‘ learning method utilizing demonstrative form in their instruction revealed that 46 ( 30.3 % ) of the pupils agreed that their instructors are demonstrative in their instruction whereas 25 ( 16.4 % ) pupils hate technology as a consequence of hapless presentation. 13 pupils stand foring 8.6 % of the respondents see technology as something a bstract. On the other manus the pupils ( 68.4 % ) see their instructors as really friendly in the schoolroom ( table 6 ) . This perchance takes the pupils to category. There is high attending of pupils to technology pulling category as 83.6 % of the technology pupils reported regular attending at technology pulling categories with 25 pupils stand foring 16.4 % coverage irregular attending. There is no pupil who stays off from category seeking to analyze technology pulling on his/her ain. The pupils do non care about the clip the pulling takes, greater figure of the category do non see anything incorrect with the continuance of the technology pulling category period. About 37.5 % and 58.6 % of the respondents gets the cognition foremost manus from the instructors ever and sometimes severally. Preference for this pattern in the ever and sometimes classs were reported by 46.7 % and 49.3 % of the respondents severally ( table 2 ) . The pupils gave grounds that assignments were normally given by the instructors ever at the terminal of each of the categories with minority ( 9.2 % ) coverage regular assignment as being excessively much. The appraisal of the handiness of survey stuff showed that there are text editions available for the personal survey among 39.5 % of the respondents. A sum of 30.9 % of the respondents reported being able to use the basic cognition passed on to them in the category in other job and obtain the solution and 40.8 % of the respondents reported working more for better personal development ( table 7 ) . Table 1. Demographic features of the respondents Table 2. Class attending and personal sentiment across different degrees Table 3. Importance of technology Pulling Table 4. Possession of drawing tools Table 5. Classroom status Table 6. Teacher and instruction manner Table 7. Study stuff and personal developmentDecisionThe attitude of technology pupils towards technology pulling discussed under pupils ‘ position of their coachs learning manner, schoolroom environment, single perceptual experiences and features, pre-knowledge of the class and survey stuffs showed that pupils have positive attitude towards technology drawing. The lone challenges the pupils are confronting is the learning manner of the instructors. This survey has shown that when there is contributing environment, friendly instructors, positive perceptual experience and character, good survey stuffs and instruments, the instruction manner factor can travel a long manner to impact the pupils. The thought of pulling out syllables and covering it at the terminal of the survey twelvemonth is good but non much more is how many of those things passed on to the pupils meets the original purpose. It is recommended that instructors of technology drawing should be interested in the topi cs that they teach, be able to demo the demand of the topic to the pupils and see the success of their pupils of import.RecognitionsThe writers are thankful to the undergraduate pupils of Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta whose engagement made this research a success.

Performance Management Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Performance Management - Term Paper Example The basic similarity between all the three books is that all of them provide practical examples and implications of the studies carried out in the workplaces. However, discussing the differences, the book, â€Å"Motivating Human Service Staff† written by Reid and Parsons the focus is on increasing motivation through supervisory control where authors have the view that employees should be made to work hard, but at the same time, they should enjoy their work because they are either given good incentives or are acknowledged, recognized and praised for performing well. In this regard, Reid & Parsons provided an example stating that in service industries most of the employees are seen having low morale or reduced levels of motivation, the reason being that the nature of such industries lacks clear incentives. Moreover, it is seen that even the workforce itself carries such de-motivating traits because either their organizational structure is autocratic, or they may not have a histo ry to work in the same profession before. Thus, as per the authors, during these situations, motivation becomes the responsibility of the management, and it is necessary for them to identify ways to support diligent workforce.Such examples given in the book show that Reid and Parson feel that the changes in behavior, as well as, skills can be carried if the employees are given a clear set of goals to accomplish along with key drivers that provide support for them to accomplish their goals.

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 20

Marketing - Essay Example The report is based on the study of the segmentation, targeting and positioning (STP) analysis of Apple and Samsung in the US market. These two organisations are the leading electronic goods manufacturer and dealer all over the world. This analysis is also emphasises on the importance of marketing mix strategy while analysing the different stages of STP strategy (Wood, 2008). Apple Inc. is a multinational company headquartered in California. It was established in the year of 1976 by Steve Jobs and Ronald Wayne. Apple offers consumer electronics, personal computers, software and online services to its customers (Marketline, 2014). Samsung is the leading electronic consumer durable organisation founded by Lee Byung-chul in the year of 1938. It is headquartered in Seoul, South Korea (Mukit, 2014). The product portfolio of Apple includes portable computers such as Macbook series, iPod, iPhone, iTune, printers, servers and wifi based stations. Apple MacBook and iPhones have created their status symbol. Their product category also includes different accessories and peripheral products such as printers, magic mouse and storage devices (Worstall, 2014). The distribution channel of Apple includes technology consultant and independent service provider. They prefer to sale their product only through authorized resellers, retailers and distributors. They also promote and sale their products through Apple authorized franchisee stores (Paczkowski, 2012). Apple is focused on promoting their products within students and professionals. Through their promotional activities they try to attract their customer’s attention towards the special features and benefits of their products. Their promotional procedure includes advertisement through all the possible media and sales promotions. Samsung has a wide product portfolio which includes Tablet, notebooks, printers, wide range of mobile phone and television, cameras, refrigerator,

Public and Humanitarian International Law Essay

Public and Humanitarian International Law - Essay Example Not everyone believes this to be true. This paper shall now assess the following statement: public international law is nothing more than a reflection of what powerful states choose to do. It shall review the claim that international law is based on not what the international community wants, but what the powerful nations want. This thesis shall be evaluated in this discussion via theories and discussion by experts and scholars in international law. This paper is being undertaken in order to provide a comprehensive and academic discussion of the subject matter. Discussion International laws are ideally implemented based on principles and mandates which are formulated by its member nations. These mandates are voted on and ratified by member states and later implemented to govern international transactions and relations. In the actual setting, these laws in relation to political processes may often be considered irreconcilable and conflicting with each other. For the most part, dominan t states may not want to use the different processes available under international laws; they may sometimes consider turning to politics instead1. However, the international systems seem to dissociate itself from power and domination. Based on the principle of sovereignty, the international laws are distancing itself from the more dominant applications of power and of political might. However since international laws always need power in order to enforce its policies, on its own, these laws seem to be powerless in most situations2. It is in unable to control power states based on its own standing, therefore it seems to depend on the application of the balance of power. In other words, in instances â€Å"when there is neither community of interests nor balance of power, there is no international law†3. Consequently, international law sometimes appears as a beacon of equality where justice prevails and power plays are consigned to the realm of politics where the more cutthroat relations prevail. This difference in application finds its best expression in the designated roles of law and politics in the early 19th century in the era of the Concert of Europe. In its interaction with weaker countries, the Concert carried out its processes via political, not so much in the legal processes4. This mutual exclusion is sometimes utilized to define the contemporary relations in international and the United States. The US, which is disinclined to ratify treaties and is more inclined to be relieved of international legal processes, often appears as a â€Å"lawless hegemon, however in spite of that, international law among the rest of states seems to flourish on its way to realizing the values of the international community†5. Moreover, the laws and political power seems to function in differing plains. As a result, international law appears idealized and the realists and critical legal scholars have accepted the fact that the laws are shaped and dictated by po wer6. Many scholars have even accepted the fact that the history of international laws marks milestones of power dominance. This paper shall proceed to evaluate whether or not the power displays in the international realm impact on the application of international laws. The international processes of dominant states straddles two policies, that of instrumentalization and withdrawal. The orientations of these two policies are different from each other as they move in two

Credit rating of small business Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Credit rating of small business - Research Paper Example Small businesses play an important role in the economy of many countries. More importantly, many of them rely on banks to finance their businesses. Granting of loans to small businesses is an intricate matter that requires the bank to gather information that helps it to assess the businesses’ ability to pay back the loan and not default (Frame & White, 2004). Hence, banks are resulting to using credit rating scores to determine if or if not to grant a loan to the business. The question is if bad credit rating means a bank should not grant a loan to a small business owner to expand or invest in his business? Why and why not? According to Petrovic and Davidovic (2011), loan granting to small businesses poses a test to banks. However, banks should give loans to small businesses based on their credit rating. It has been found that small businesses having in-between credit ratings are likely to rely on loans from banks. Conversely, for small businesses that have low ratings, evaluation fails to avail reason to grant loans as they are thought to have nothing to lose if they default (Petrovic & Davidovic, 2011). The credit rating of a small business borrower functions to envisage future acts that the borrower will without evaluation. Hence, a bad credit rating will imply that the bank should not grant a loan to the business as the credit rating serves to predict the actions of the business after getting the loan. The credit rating obtained aids in the formation of the bank’s decision (Diamond, 1991). On the other hand, bad credit rating should not be used to deny a small business a loan grant because banks do not have all the information concerning the borrower. Even if the bank obtains a good credit rating concerning the borrower that allows a bank to grant the small business a loan, the borrower may opt to default even if the business does

Commentary on a macro economics topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Commentary on a macro economics topic - Essay Example This manifests the government’s efforts towards maintaining economic stability in case of unemployment. However, the article reckons that the federal government’s temporary â€Å"extended† and â€Å"emergency† unemployment compensation programs accrue benefits only after the state exhausts its benefits in case of a recession (Mulligan 1). This demonstrates the federal government’s concern on unemployment and depicts the government’s efforts towards economic challenges like recession. Notably, the federal unemployment insurance and any other temporary federal programs have expiration dates to discourage people from leaving their jobs, which would lead to increased unemployment levels. In fact, the article notes that although the Unemployment benefits from any program have great importance to the unemployed, they equally depress the labor market by encouraging retrenchments and allowing people to remain unemployed (Mulligan 1). Nevertheless, wh ere the victims are yet to get other jobs before the expiry date of such programs, the Congress extends the expiry date as part of the fiscal cliff deal (Mulligan 1). Indeed, the Affordable Care Act may replace the Emergency Unemployment Compensation if it expires on December. The new program will be more beneficial since it will cover the unemployed and the premium subsidies for health insurance (Mulligan 1). This manifests the long-term concern by the federal government to address unemployment in the country. Moreover, the article presents the fact that the continued presence of the Emergency Unemployment Compensation and the new health care assistance derives an incentive for workers and employers to create and retain jobs (Mulligan 1). This is a long-term strategy to eliminate unemployment in the country. The article advocates for employment since it leads to income that generates additional taxes and withheld benefits for the federal government (Mulligan 1). However, high tax r ate discourages people from working. (Mulligan 1) The broken line depicts the level of the marginal tax rate if the Emergency Unemployment Compensation program expires on December 2013. The diagram shows that upon the expiry, the tax rates are bound to increase more at the beginning of next year. It also shows that the tax rates are bound to increase at a lower rate if the Emergency Unemployment Compensation program does not expire in December 2013. Ideally, the health assistance will compensate the benefits lost from the expiry of the Emergency Unemployment Compensation program. The fiscal cliff as used in the article refers to a combination of expiring tax cuts and across-the-board government spending cuts effective Dec. 31, 2012 (â€Å"Investopedia† 1). Ideally, the fiscal cliff sought to avoid the adverse effects of expiring tax cuts and reducing the government spending at the same time. The fiscal cliff has an overall effect of reducing the federal budget deficit ( "Investopedia† 1). On the other hand, the marginal tax rate refers to the rate of tax paid to an additional dollar earned through employment (Reynolds 1). Notably, an increase in income leads to an increase in the marginal tax rate. As such, low-income earners accrue lower marginal tax rate that the higher income earners. Although, marginal tax rate seems like an equitable taxation strategy, many people

Case study-BP Deepwater Horizon platform disaster,LA May 2010 Research Paper

Case study-BP Deepwater Horizon platform disaster,LA May 2010 (Emergency and disaster management) - Research Paper Example One of these groups was stakeholders and authorities in the area of oil emergency and disaster management. The other group comprised of ordinary inhabitants who were in one way or the other victims of the BP Oil Spill Disaster. Through comprehensive analysis of data collected, it came to light that if there were strict standards in place, the BP Oil Spill disaster could have been avoided. Partly to be blamed for the disaster also was the absence of law enforcement as far as safety practices in the oil and gas industry are concerned. To this regard, recommendations on the enactment and enforcement of basic safety laws in the oil and gas industry were made. Indeed the implementation of these recommendations would be a gain step towards the dream of ensuring disaster free operation in the oil and gas industry. INTRODUCTION Background to the Study Oil is one of the major sources of revenue and income for government. Apart from this, the usefulness of oil and gas to the running of local a nd international industries as well as the use of oil as the major source of energy for the country are some other reasons why oil and gas exploration might not end any time soon in America. According to the API (2011), â€Å"oil and natural gas industry that supports 9.2 million U.S. jobs and 7.5% of our nation’s GDP.† Yet again, these are reasons why oil exploration continues to be paramount to the United States government. These benefits notwithstanding, there is the need to ensuring that oil and gas exploration becomes absolute blessing to the country rather than a curse. In most countries, oil curse has been a term that stands for tensions and disputes that arise out of the distribution of funds that are accrued from the mining of oil where some faction claim ownership of the oil and thus a greater share of the revenue. Clearly, the United States has developed beyond such uprisings. However, the issue of spillage of large and harmful quantities oil in the course o f oil and gas extraction is perhaps a curse that the country has not been exempted from yet. As technology and the invention of complex machinery and equipment abound, one would have expected that news of oil spillage would hardly be heard among oil companies in the United States but the April 2010 BP oil spillage incidence did not just come to be an ordinarily spillage but one that was serious enough to be classified as a disaster. It is not surprising therefore that Lintner (2010) posits that the BP Oil Spill is â€Å"the greatest environmental disaster in United States history.† Such as another oil spill disasters come with thorning effects on living species and the environment at large. Typically in the case of BP in April 2010, there was massive lost of living creatures in the ocean while waters in the ocean and the soil at the immediate shore had their own versions of destruction. Then of course there was lost of thousands of US dollars that could have been channeled in to national development. Due to the harsh consequences that come with such disasters as oil spill, the researcher is committed to using this research as a platform to delve into the causes, effects, management and prevention of oil spill disasters by using BP’s case as a case study. Research Aims and Objectives This is a case study that aims at revisiting

Community Health Concerns Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Community Health Concerns - Assignment Example According to a research conducted in 2004, in Alabama the chance of being overweight is greatest in white men (45.4%) and black females (40.7%) while white females has a slight chance of becoming obese (49.3%) (Chou, Grossman & Saffer, 2004). To be specific in Etowah County, research conducted in 2009, showed that the percentage for both female and male population was 50% of all the counties. Obese males were 36.9% and females38.2%. In 2009, the national average was 32.8% for males and 35.1% for females (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. (n.d). According to a report by Alliance for a Healthier Generation (2014), Alabama has the eighth highest rate of childhood obesity in the United States. 35% of the youth in Alabama are obese or overweight. As an advanced nurse practitioner, I will explore for means of change that will provide the upcoming generation with the opportunity to live a healthy and long life. Moreover, the resources that are at my disposal will mainly comprise of community health centres, schools and residential homes. I would utilize these settings to conduct education and care to obese individuals. My main concern is if the obese individuals are ready for a discussion about the issue. This is because patients tend to make personal decisions about their health care in the situation of complicated net of interactions related to social economics which the individuals have no control. An example is stress of living in chronic poverty or the individual’s lack of access to health care when young (Lange, 2012). One of the major challenges that I will encounter is culture diversity. People from different cultures adopt different eating habits and lifestyles. According to the information provided by National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHHES), disclosed that there are significant ethnic and racial discrepancies in obesity prevalence among U.S. adolescents and children (Fryar, Carroll &

Affirmative Action Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Affirmative Action - Essay Example Because of this, the execution debate of affirmative action has raged based on this policy principle on the people of America. America is against affirmative action as it is a form of reverse discrimination and goes against the very same principles for which it fights, meaning that, since affirmative action was created to fight for the rights of the people whose rights were violated, it continues to run and be applied, as well as implemented in modern times. Based on modern information on affirmative action, the threshold of implementing and meeting the margin between discrimination and integration has been crossed meaning that there is more integration and people who were once discriminated against now have equal opportunities. Implementation of affirmative action in modern times, therefore, is an act of discriminating against the people who discriminated against those who are now conducting the discrimination. As such, the argument is that it creates an unfair advantage for certain groups over others, which translates to it being a discriminatory action against certain groups, creating grounds for it to b e abolished and even done away with permanently. In addition, based on the same argument, the action or policy is a failure in terms of creating equal opportunities in the American society considering it only serves to counteract the gains made over many years in terms of protecting minority groups (Marklein). This can be seen in cases where minorities are discriminated where they are recognized by other members of society as having credible success as it is based on policies that go against the rest of the society by giving unfair advantages. Another argument against the same policy is based on the American constitution, where all individuals are subject to equal protection, which would then contradict the same policy of affirmative action. This is because the constitution calls for the protection of the rights of all Americans, which then

Sustainability Development in Hotel Industry Essay Example for Free

Sustainability Development in Hotel Industry Essay Hotel industry in recent past has come up with various sustainable development measures. These measures are from conserving water, waste management , energy saving to creating green room. The industry has integrated its business with Sustainable development approach in various functions such as Operations, supply Chain and procurement. These sustainable approaches has benefited industry in terms of cost and brand. This research paper find out how globally Hotel industry is adopting sustainable development approaches in the daily business. The goal of Sustainable Development is clearly to secure economic development, social equity and environmental protection. As much as they could work in harmony these goals sometimes work against each other in our modern world. The rapid development of good living, travel and in general of the consumer society has often resulted in less protection to the environment and to some groups of the world population. Ferocious search for profitability has not co-existed harmoniously with making the world a better place. However there is a general consensus that t cannot go on for ever and those who are favored by life now feel responsible for those who have not had the same chance. Economic growth will always remain the basis of human development but it should integrate as well its impact on the people and on the planet. SD focuses on having a holistic approach to development taking into consideration economic, social and environmental needs while avoiding over utilizing key natural resources. Hospitality or Hotel industry all over the world is leading in creating sustainable model for other industry. Area of S ustainable Developments in Hotel industry Water As the hotel industry is a large consumer of water it is obvious that it should demonstrate its concern about this major problem. Currently, in a lot of hotels, guests are recommended to keep their towels –sometimes their sheets- for more than a day in order for hotels to conserve water and reduce the use of detergent. It is a worthwhile undertaking but one that sounds hypocritical as it appears to be as a cost saving exercise. Energy The installation of fluorescent lights throughout a hotel reduces energy consumption by thousands of dollars as does the replacement of windows. Green roofs help conserve energy. New energies – wind, solar should be encouraged. Not only these programs help save energy but they cut maintenance costs. Their pay-back period is generally very good. Governments usually encourage the efforts by giving grants or tax cuts. Hotel companies should do whatever can be done to help develop clean energies. Waste There is an enormous amount of waste in the hotel industry and particularly in the food industry. A significant global project is to engage the units to reduce waste as much as possible and to recycle it Greenhouse Gas emissions (GHG) Hotels, using major quantities of energy, produce major quantities of GHG. The measurement of the reduction of GHG emission is more visible when consolidated at company level. A company can make a pledge to offset carbon emissions by supporting an organization such as Climate Care. Paperless environment When one considers the quantity of paper that is used in a hotel one cannot but think of the destruction of trees and its impact on global warming. Moreover the printing of paper is often totally useless and people often discard papers after a meeting or will not even look at them at a later point. When one adds the production of ink and toners to supply photocopy machines it is easy to realize the negative impact of such habits on the environment. In a computerized world it is evident that old habits should be discouraged. Not only would it help the environment but it would also cut costs dramatically in the long term. Only the necessary printing of paper and strict use of recycled paper should be encouraged. Green Hotel Program – A new Concept In an industry where investment in the end product (rooms) is enormous it is significant to spend money wisely with a focus on the environment. It actually ives a great opportunity for the company to display its commitment to SD. Every aspect of room construction and decoration can be addressed: flooring, wall-covering, air conditioning, electrical installation, water usage, furniture, textile and equipment. Clearly the process should not only consider the room but the whole property; however in the hotel industry it is the room product that captures the attention of the public Procurement The value chain of the hotel industry includes a major component which is procurement. This is true not only during construction but while running a hotel and a restaurant. This activity will reveal how a sound hotel SD policy can have a ripple effect on other industries, engaging the procurement company and all suppliers in the same direction. Vendors involved in a hotel construction and renovation program should be made aware of the objective of the company. Moreover the procurement company should include Sustainable Development in its own strategy. It can start with presenting as many green products as possible and encouraging vendors to reduce packaging and offer recyclable products. It should as well emphasize buying sustainable food only. Once the procurement company is involved in this mission it will encourage hoteliers to go yet further in their SD efforts. The purchasing power of a procurement company is enormous and it will help reduce the unit price of sustainable products as they can be more expensive than non-sustainable products and it discourages hoteliers and restaurateurs from buying SD products. A major endeavor for a procurement company is to include Fair Trade in its strategy enabling local suppliers to develop their business and helping poor countries to expand their economy. It should not however stop companies from considering Fair Trade as a great opportunity to improve their corporate social responsibility. Industry Standards for ‘Green Hotel’ According to US green building council a ‘Green’ or ‘Sustainable’ Hotel will : †¢Use 26% Less Energy †¢Emit 33% Carbon Dioxide †¢Use 30% Less Indoor Water †¢Send 50%-75% less Solid Waste to Landfills and Incinerators †¢Green Buildings can also encourage the use of alternative transportation (walking, mass transit, low-emission, fuel-efficient or alternative fuel vehicles) World Wide Leading Hotels in Sustainable Development Fairmont Hotels Resorts Fairmont is certainly the hotel company that has introduced Environment and Community Service earlier than others in its global strategy. Due to its history and its hotels locations, often in the countryside, the company has officially recognized the importance of Environment in 1990 and pioneered the Fairmont Green Partnership, in order to minimize the impact of its hotels on the planet. It encourages all properties to individually search for environment initiatives, be it minimization of pesticide on their golf course, encouragement to use hybrid cars, etc. Its main topics are waste reduction, resource conservation, purchasing policy, habitat and species protection and community connection. They encourage as well Social Responsibility through the Fairmont Hotels Resorts charitable donations program that delivers grants which support Education and Youth development programs, Health programs, Social services and Civic and community projects. Through these programs Fairmont has received many accolades and awards, most recently the WTTC Tourism for Tomorrow 2006 award. Accor As of today Accor is the hotel company that is the most advanced in its SD approach. It started as an Environment strategy in 1994 building a network of 53 environment correspondents throughout the world. Sustainable Development was officially embedded in the strategy of the company in 2002 with the appointment of a Director of Sustainable Development, member of the Management Board, the creation of a group-wide SD committee and the development of an exhaustive SD strategy. That strategy encompasses all aspects of the concept. A scorecard has been developed that checks Accor’s involvement throughout the world with all takeholders: Shareholders, Customers, Employees, suppliers, Environment and local communities. The company was one of the first ones to sign the Global Compact initiative launched by UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, in January 1999 which is a commitment to follow strict guidelines in terms of Human rights, Labor, Environment and anti-corruption initiatives. Accor is not only focused on developing a group SD strategy but insists in reaching each and every one of its 170 000 employees through direct campaigns. It sends a strong message to all employees by published a short document highlighting conservation tips, a comic book about environment conservation, and an environment guide for hotel managers to train their employees about all aspects of environmental protection. A SD purchasing charter was developed and distributed to suppliers to entice them to follow SD guidelines and involve them in a virtuous circle. Environment and eco-efficiency start during the development phase of all projects. The Company uses internationally or nationally recognized certifications. 0 hotels are now ISO 14001 certified and more certifications are in the pipeline. In Canada its hotels are Audubon certified for eco-efficiency. Measurements are in place to show the energy, waste and water consumption reduction. Biodiversity and architectural integration are another focus in the development of projects. For international and shareholder recognition Accor is listed in the major socially responsible investment indexes: DJSI World Stoxx, FTSE4Good, ASPI and ESI indexes. InterContinental Hotels Group IHG has evidently undergone a major shift toward a complete Sustainable Development strategy recently. The basis is there to make it the industry reference in the coming years. The group will not only be the largest hotel company in the world but as well, naturally, can become the most admired one. All components of SD have been addressed. Many actions geared toward social responsibility and environmental protections have been endorsed throughout the years by various divisions or hotels and coordination is now taking place. Measurements will help demonstrate that the company walks the talk and a separate and comprehensive company SD report will position the company not as one of but as the hotel company that leads the industry. It would be convenient to â€Å"brand† this strategy so that all could refer to it easily. A Senior Vice President Global Corporate Social Responsibility position was created in September 2006. Hilton Hilton Corporation has not yet embraced a holistic approach to Sustainable Development. They communicate mostly on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Environment concerns. Their CSR is focused on four areas: Education programs Selected Healthcare programs Youth programs Civic affaires and Public policy. Their Environment policies are based on a tagline: Reduce Reuse – Recycle. The company was the first in the industry to be awarded the EnergyStar award (US) for its involvement in reducing electrical energy consumption –fluorescent bulbs in all areas-, water conservation – towel program-, recycling. It encourages its employees to be involved in various community services. Hilton International (now bought by Hilton Corp) has started a program called We Care which is addressing mostly environmental issues and community service. They have included it in their balance scorecard system. Hilton Hotels has developed an interesting program to help improve relationship between people: Be Hospitable Kimpton Hotels It has divided its operations into two distinctive divisions: Hotels and Restaurants. It is very much involved in Sustainable Development and Environmental protection. Kimpton EarthCare: Their mission statement is the following: â€Å"To lead the hospitality industry in supporting a sustainable world, by continuing to deliver a premium guest experience through non-intrusive, high quality, eco-friendly products and services†. One of these initiatives is the creation of an eco-friendly room at the Triton hotel in San Francisco designed to become a best practice for the company. It offers amenity dispensers – to reduce packaging waste-, energy efficient lighting and motion sensors, non-toxic environmentally safe products, eco-friendly paints, energy efficient mini-bars and air conditioning system, etc. Kimpton’s SD strategy is clear, with a twist of being specific to â€Å"boutique/hip hotels†. However there are still at the initial stage when it comes to measurements. Some of them are the following: â€Å"Over $500,000 in new revenue attributed to EarthCare Over 12,000 gallons (over 360 bathtubs) of toxic cleaners removed from our water supply Conserved over 103,000 gallons of water at Hotel Allegro, Chicago Hotel Monaco Salt Lake City awarded the e2 environmental award Galleria Park Hotel in San Francisco saved $4,000 from just changing Exit lighting to LEDs†. Six Senses SPAs Their purpose: â€Å"To create innovative and enriching experiences in a sustainable environment†. They have an exhaustive list of values all geared towards the happiness of their staff and customers: â€Å"epitomizing all senses: sight, sound, smell, taste, touch †¦ and beyond†. Their environmental program is developed in the Holistic Environmental Management Program. Being generally located on tiny islands, their goals are: to reduce resource consumption and waste generation. to manage energy use and water conservation. o hire members of local communities and engage them in social responsibility. Protection of flora and fauna. They created a fund to support all types of environmental and social activities in which they allocate 0. 05% of their total annual revenue. One interesting idea is the Six Senses guest carbon- neutral program through which clients are enticed to donate money to help compensate the emission of carbon dioxide (CO? ) that the plane that brought them to the island produced. That fund is then distributed to NGOs that care about the reforestation of the planet. Preserving the environment with the ECHO program (Environmentally Conscious Hospitality Operations) through eco-friendly guidelines to all hotels and associates through the â€Å"reduce-reuse-recycle† process†. ITC India ITC is leading hotel in India for sustainability development. It has come up with Innovative designs, Water efficient buildings, Material resources and energy conservation steps in its various hotels . At 170,000 sq feet, ITC Green Centre is the world’s largest 0% water discharge, noncommercial Green building, and compared to similar buildings, ITC Green Centre has a 30% smaller carbon footprint. ITC is developing its hotel based on this building model and architecture. References Jauhari, Vinnie (Editor). International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Volume 19, Issue 5 : The Hospitality Industry in India. Bradford, , GBR: Emerald Group Publishing Ltd, 2007. p 364. Saxena, Atul. New Trends in Tourism and Hotel Industry. Delhi, IND: Global Media, 2008. p 191. Brody, Derrick. Latest Trends in Hotel Industry. Delhi, , IND: Global Media, 2009. p 4. Mannan, B. A..

Comparing 600-1450 & 1450-1750 Essay Example for Free

Comparing 600-1450 1450-1750 Essay Periods of time have always been changing and evolving. The 600 to 1450 era had some similarities to the following era, the 1450 to the 1750; though as said before, there were the changes also. Many continuities and breaks occurred between both periods. There were the changes in their trading systems, the technology, their global interactions, urbanization, social systems, and their political government development. These events led to various inventions and some that are still used to this day. All the terms involving continuity during both time periods eventually changed and affected the era. Analyzing these ideas will help receive a better understanding of both periods. During the 600s to the 1450s, trading was mostly done by land. There were long-distance trading occurring then, but not as much sea travel and ocean trade routes as in the 1450s to 1750s time period. The post-classical period (600-1450) included the long-distance trade from the European to the African kingdoms. However, there wasn’t any constant trading happening between the eastern and western hemisphere. On the other side, during the time frame after this (1450-1750), trading was constant with the western and eastern hemispheres now connected by sea-based travel. World trade patterns where happening due to the Atlantic Ocean trade eventually crossing of the Pacific Ocean. Trading began with small items and grew to even humans, slaves. Trade routes influenced the cultures and belief systems back then also. Connections between different people brought both positive and negative effects. Technology also improved because of necessary traveling items. The technology during both of these time periods where advancing and improving. During the 1450-1750, these innovations strengthened their political organization and economic growth. Afterwards these two affected and altered the world trade pattern. In these early years, the Scientific Revolution occurred and the methods used by scientists then, are now the basis for science; for example mathematical formulation, empirical evidence, and freedom of inquiry. The Scientific Revolution was a new vision of science relying on the human reason for comprehending the scientific phenomena. This Revolution was brought by the earlier Renaissance and the Reformation. During the 1450-1750, there wasn’t a Scientific Revolution, but there was the forcing of converting to Catholicism from the Spanish and Portuguese towards the Amerindians. In the earlier era, it was optional for people to rely on the Scientific Revolution as their belief, but in the later era, Catholicism was forced into being the belief of all. In navigation technology, the Portuguese made great contributions including the magnetic compass and the astrolabe, helping mariners determine their locations at sea. They also made advancements in the design of ships. Caravel was the name of the newly developed ship by the Portuguese. Its size allowed the exploration of shallow coastal areas and rivers, and was also strong eno0ugh to withstand storms out on the ocean. This navigational technology made history. Socially, there were many important cultural changes. For example in the 600-1450, the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Enlightenment were beliefs that oriented European minds toward science and invention. This allowed them to escape from the social and intellectual boundaries of the Middle Ages. Speaking first of the Renaissance, which was primarily launched in Italy, this was a time of â€Å"rebirth† to the intellectual and artistic creativity of the people. Humanism is the interest of an individual’s capabilities and accomplishments, but in the Italian Renaissance, humanism was reflected through philosophies, portrait painting, and autobiography. The Reformation occurred both in the Protestant group and later on in the Catholic people. The rebellions against the church were the Protestant Reformation, which began in 1517 by Martin Luther and his 95 Theses. The Catholic Church responded forcefully and began the Catholic Reformation. During this time, a Council of Trent rose and Jesuits was founded which traveled all around Europe trying to convince ex-members back. During the time when the Spanish were ruling over the Americas, the forced their way into that land and killed everyone they found. These conquistadors were cruel, slaughtering small children, pregnant women, and even old men. Their political development systems changed slightly and this caused a new turn to the governments’ ruling and its land/sea possession of trade. During the post-classical era, the kingdoms were long lasting overall. In the period after, there was a great expansion of their kingdoms. The Spanish and French kings gained enough power to turn into absolute monarchs, which held complete control over their kingdoms. The French kings also cultivated a belief in the divine right, which was the authority of king with God’s blessing. In other parts of Europe (Britain and the Netherlands) developed constitutionalism as their style of government. Though, the development of capitalism and technological advances was constant on all government types. Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of property and business that produce goods to be sold in a free market. The joint-stock companies, back then, organized commercial ventures on a large scale by allowing investors to buy and sell shares. In the â€Å"putting-out system†, entrepreneurs delivered the raw material to the workers in their home, from where they were transformed into finished products. The Portuguese established viceroyalties, which were the king’s representatives in the New World and wielded a great deal of power over their lands. They later became independent and set up their government in an urban area. Talking more about the time of 1450-1750, the Zhen He’s voyages were very important. I founded interesting that after Yongle’s death, the Ming government decided to stop the voyages, but if they hadn’t, might the Chinese have been the ones to discover the Americas first?!!? Overall, periodization has changed and had made an impact on us today. The era between the 600-1450s and the one of 1450-1750s were both very interesting and had marker events that shape our life today. Analyzing, comparing the continuities and the breaks help us get a better understanding on what really made history.

The Effect of Employee Job Satisfaction

The Effect of Employee Job Satisfaction Study Objectives: The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of job stress on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The author studied some of the definitions and the sources of job stress and he mentioned some of the stress related illness; he also examined the types and factors of organizational commitment. The research question of the paper is what is the effect of job stress on employees job satisfaction and organizational commitment? Keywords: job stress, job satisfaction and organizational commitment Introduction The main purpose of the paper is to examine the job stress and its effect on job satisfaction of the employees and organizational commitment and thus on the organization as a whole. Stress, which have a huge effect on job fulfillment that subsequently affect the job performance, is considered a natural division of each and every occupation. Lately, researchers suggest that when the work nature alters the employees welfare is affected. These days, Job stress considers a very important issue because of its unavoidable outcome in any organization as a result of the current life difficulties (Singh, 2009: 255). Also Ziauddin et al (2010: 618) stated that in our society stress is being inevitable; and in order to avoid it, recognition and acceptance can ease its consequences and effects. As job stress will affect organizational commitment, and this will directly lead to the execution of employees and will also affect the firms performance. Thats why organizations have to reduce the stress on its employees. Another important topic in organizational research is organizational commitment. It can be used in the understanding of employees behaviour in the workplace. Organizational commitment imitates the degree to which employees identify with an organization and are loyal to its goals. Meta-analysis studies revealed a strong positive relationship between organizational commitment and job satisfaction (Tett and Meyer, 1993). On the other hand, some studies found that 38 percent only of employees experience a long-term commitment to their workplace. However organizations with highly committed employees will have a higher productivity than an organization with a non committed employees (YUSOB, 1999) The three variables, job stress, job satisfaction and commitment to the organization are grapping the attention of the organizational behavior research, these organizational behaviors directly and strongly affect the general performance of any institution. (Chen, Silverthorne, Hung, 2005:243). One of the most raising problems is job stress that consequences in significant costs to workers and the work association around the globe, and it is the main reason for employees job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Khatibi, Asadi and Hamidi, 2009:272). Some limitations and gaps have been found. Most of the studies on job stress focused only on the effect of job stress on job satisfaction or organizational commitment or even on the organization performance. For example; Sullivan Bahgat (1992) investigate the relation between the organizational stress with job satisfaction and performance .Fairbrother and Warn (2003) applied a research to examine the strong relation between stress, dimensions of workplace and job satisfaction. Chen, Silverthorne Hung (2006) studied the effect of commitment and organizational communication on job stress and job performance. Khatibi, Asadi Hamidi (2009) examined the connection between job stress and organizational commitment in National Olympic and Paralympic Academy (NOPA) employees. But they didnt specify any sectors, like the labor productivity in Egypt or in any other countries. So the Research Question of the Research Gap is what is the effect of job stress on job satisfaction and organizationa l commitment on Egyptian labor? The research question of the paper is What is the effect of job stress on job satisfaction and organizational commitment? since job stress these days is inevitable effect in any corporation because of the current life difficulties, and it might affect employees job satisfaction and organizational commitment, which may lead to the termination of employees and this will have a ruthless impact on the organization performance which will affect the organization as a whole. The paper is consisted of four main segments. The first segment is an overview on job stress; its definition, sources and levels. The second segment is an overview on job satisfaction; definition, variables and importance. The third segment is an overview on organizational commitment; definition, types and factors affecting it. The last segment will examine the impact of job stress on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Then finally the methodology will be discussed followed by the conclusion. Literature Review Overview on job stress The job stress is indirectly proportional with the organizational commitment and the job performance , whenever the employee is more committed to the organization , the job stress will decrease, thus the job performance will increase and vice versa. . (Chen, Silverthorne, Hung, 2005:243), a raising problem of handling stress at work is being faced by personals and their institutions however, they are vulnerable because they need to understand the nature of their job-related stress (Williams, Cooper, 1998:306). One risk that should grab the attention of managers and they should be responsive to negative factors such as job stress that have a negative effects on employees health and as a result it has a unconstructive effect on job satisfaction and job performance. (Hamidi and Eivazi, 2010:964). Definition of job stress According to Hamidi and Eivazi (2010: 964) work stress is defined as the condition where some features or a group of characteristics that disturb the employee on his/her physical, mental, or societal homeostasis. Furthermore, Williams, Cooper (1998: 307) acknowledged that job Stress, which can be measured by some various measures such as mental physical condition, nervousness, and job satisfaction, is a complicated, multivariate process. Also (Lee Shin: 2005, 100) agreed that job stress is the condition of sentimental fatigue and sarcasm that happens repeatedly between entities who do people work (Lee Shin: 2005, 100). Sources of job stress In the workplace there are many reasons for employees job stress; one of the main reasons is the work overload, employees stay at the organization for a lot of time working to handle their jobs on their deadlines. While executives pay no attention for the stress and moreover they inquire more work from employee to do (Shahu and Gole, 2008: 238) In our life there are many important parts; job life is one of those parts. It causes different types of stress. Competitive nature of the jobs leads employees to be more worried and spend more time in their work; this considered a reason for stress. Generally employees are more anxious about their results and outcomes in their work, this way influence their treatments with people and with their customers as well. As the paper showed before stress is concerned with environmental conditions which invented to present the demand that frightens to exceed the persons abilities. Stress leads a negative impact to the organization, so the employees and their boss should understand the causes or the sources of stress (Abdullah and ahsan 2009: 121-122). There are different variables that have major effect on job stress. Those variables are role ambiguity, role conflict, work overload, and job-induced anxiety. Role conflict and role ambiguity are related to organizational and individual consequences. Role ambiguity is a degree that obvious data is lacking concerning three steps. The first step is the probabilities related to a role. The second step is the techniques used to accomplish role expectations and probabilities. The third step is the role performance outcomes. Role ambiguity may be caused by unstable expectations and probabilities. Role conflict happened when a person meets the immediate incidence of role requirements where personal performance prevents the others performance. Work overload shows too much work and responsibilities that exceed persons ability. Job-induced anxiety is the degree that individuals know how the indication and signs of worry about their work position and circumstances (Li and Shani 1991: 108-109). Job stress is a result of organizational portions, working for long hours, lack of organizational support and organizational change. Lack of support from supervisors and colleagues, and conflict with demands and pressures can lead to increasing job stress. There are other sources of job stress, insufficient staffing, and long working hours. Responsibility schedules which are in conflict with time for family, projectile field responsibility, deployments, threat of military disciplines, problem with supervisors and a wide diversity of other job related matters and problems. Work overload, work design, job qualifications, job performance and organizational structure are indicators of job stress. This study also added other sources of job stress which are work dimension factors which include lack of clearness of the work role, and disturbance of personal life and every day routines (Bokti and Abu Talib 2009: 301). There are three different influences that have great impact on creating stress. The first influence is personal influence; it confirmed that the feature of the marital relationship will arbitrate the effects of job insecurity (Wilson and Larson 1993: 74). Low wages or salaries, bad environment in work such as low social support and high workload, and high level of stress, those are factors that make employees leave their work and positions. While, getting recognition in the workplace was one of the reasons that make employees to continue in their jobs (Abualrub and Al-Zaru 2008: 228). Work overload related to the amount of stress practiced by people because of the awareness which they are can not deal with the quantity and the amount of required work allocated to them. People are expected to practice strain when they are expected to work hard and do more than the available time that allow them to do. Another source of job stress is lack of autonomy. This source is related to the insight of the control of decision making. This is because of the limitations of job or the workplace. The person is expected to experience stress when there is interdependence between the tasks of individual and the tasks of other people. There are other different sources of stress; broken or poor relationships with work colleagues will leas to high levels of stress. Unfair management will consider a potential source of stress. The jobs basic nature could be a source of stress. This study confirmed that lack of challenging and meaningful tasks, physical working circumstances is considered aspects of the job that may increase stress (Coetzee and Villiers 2010:30). Job stress is an adaptive reply happening in the workplace. Its reply is mediated by the characteristics of individuals and mediated by the psychological processes. In many occupational situations are now usually identified in educational situations. A lot of top stressors associated positively to the limitations of time. Time pressures, work overload and interpersonal relationships were major stressors among universitys staff. Conflict happens among teaching; scholarship and the responsibility of service were highly ranked as stressful condition. Job stress increases with greater public service expectations included faculty members rank, type of institution and gender (Thorsen 1996:474). Universitys teachers stress related to phenomena as poor physical comfort, mental ill-health and intention to leave. Teaching is considered as a demanding profession. There is bad impact of job stress between teachers on their well being and the behavior of work. Stress between universitys teachers leads to burnout. University teachers who practice and understand higher demands on their attention, energy, and time than others, whereas getting fewer prizes and recompenses, they become estranged from their work lives (Taris and Schreurs 2001: 284). Job stress should be at a suitable level, job stress has a negative effect on job performance of university teachers. Pressure of universitys teacher resulted from big competition, role conflict and the expectation of job which introduced in the system of education. This caused problems in professional behavior and job burnout (Cai-feng 2010: 130). He and Li (2000: 254) mentioned in their study that stress has sources, those sources are Social Environment, Family Condit, and workplace culture and atmosphere. Those sources lead to a response from individual, and then it causes job stress symptoms.Job efforts could be considered as stressor, it placed depend on the workplace and the deadlines of meetings. Job efforts have a direct relation with stress in the workplace, when it increases stress level increases also and vise versa. Job reward which is the real wages, categorized into three different mechanisms. The three mechanisms are personal financial need, personal social need, and finally personal esteem on and off the work environment. Job reward has a negative relationship with job stress (Rehman and Khan 2010:43). Levels of job stress The qualified difference between the requirement of the environment and the abilities of the individual is what stress means. Job stressor factor is divided into three main sectors. The first one is individual factor; second one is job factor or group factor and finally organizational factor. Job factors and specific job responsibilities structure the job, the ecological work factors and those factors that is associated to work plan comprise some variables, such as; job duties diversity, job difficulty, temperature, noise, and the level autonomy and control that workers have on their technique and speed on their job (Khatibi, Asadi and Hamidi, 2009:272). Individual level Some studies have been found that individuals stressors are the most important level than other levels. Several individual stressors are; the lack of social support, Individuals stressor factors have been studied more than other levels: role conflict, role ambiguity, volume overload of work, embarrassment changes, the quality of interpersonal relationships, lack of social support and personality type. Those stressor factors that are attributed to organizational factors are cultural and management practicing within the organization, non-participation in decision making, inappropriate and inadequate communication, totalitarian leadership style, organizational policies, insufficient opportunities for advancement, lack of job security which play a role in making stress. Job stress with any model needs the signs to recognize. (Khatibi, Asadi and Hamidi, 2009:272). There are three different influences that have great impact on creating stress. The first influence is personal influence; it confirmed that the feature of the marital relationship will arbitrate the effects of job insecurity (Wilson and Larson 1993: 74). Low wages or salaries, bad environment in work such as low social support and high workload, and high level of stress, those are factors that make employees leave their work and positions. While, getting recognition in the workplace was one of the reasons that make employees to continue in their jobs (Abualrub and Al-Zaru 2008: 228). Group level Organizational level The person environment fit model concerns with two main variables. The two variables are the individual characteristics of the worker and the organizational qualities of the work environment. In this Model, job stress is supposed to arise from an oddity between the environment and the person. This model showed the inconsistency in fit is a stressor. Unresolved issues will lead to psychological and physiological strain and strain is any psychological or physiological variation from what is usual for the person. Bad person environment fit could create a high risk to the employees (Blix and Lee 1991: 290). Stress-related illnesses A considerable relationship between level of peoples stress and repulsive reaction has been found in some therapeutic researches, such as; mental distress, sleep disorders and heart disease which may lead to the increase in the rate of absenteeism and that affect the employees job performance and as a result the organization in general will be affected. (Hamidi and Eivazi, 2010:964). Overview on Job satisfaction Baker College (2004:31-32) stated that the affective reaction to the job satisfaction is reflected by the constructive emotional condition, that defines the term job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is accompanied with two effects either absenteeism or turnover. Job satisfaction is considered a perfect predictor of employee absenteeism or turnover. Definition of job satisfaction Job satisfaction defined by Lambert (2004, p.210) as the amount of which the workers like their job. While Lambert, Barton, and Hogan (1999, p.97) defined job satisfaction as the gratification of peoples need that linked to their work. Camp (1994) and Lambert (2004) mentioned that employees job satisfaction can be measured by the satisfaction from pay, promotion, work, supervision, and coworkers. On the other hand Glisson Durick (1988) mentioned that job satisfaction is attached to another five additional measurements which are; task significance, skill variety, task identity, independence, and feedback. Sources of job satisfaction Some paraphernalia may cause the employees satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The major factors that encourage and satisfy them are wages, chances, raises, bonuses, working hours, environment, communication and relationship with their peers and supervisors. In addition to the availability of resources needed to achieve their jobs and tasks, one more thing is the involvement in the decision making process (Adeyemo, 2007: 325). Researches agreed that culture, race, education, age, residence and relatives can affect employees job satisfaction. For example; the groups of workers who didnt complete their education or even didnt graduate from a high school are more likely to be very satisfied from those who graduate, also the younger employees or workers are least likely to be fulfilled than the older ones. African Americans workers are more likely to be satisfied than Hispanic workers. Also there are some other sources that may affect job satisfaction negatively or positively like for example; the employees that dont show their emotions are more likely to be very fulfilled with each and every increase in the emotional control. On the other hand, employees that come across violence from customers or the members of the family are less likely to be much fulfilled with each and every increase of the abuse occurrences (Delp et al, 2010:929). Monetary limitations that boundary the contact with health care can significantly reduce job fulfillment. There are three main reasons that illuminate the impact of meeting of the physicians. Firstly, the insufficient health aids that dont protect all workers or all costs. Secondly, there is no sick leave that requires workers to sacrifice their salaries when they miss their work for health arrangements. Finally, there are no support respite care workers which will force them to choose between disregard their own health requirements or leaving consumers and caring for themselves (Delp et al, 2010:933-934). Importance of job satisfaction Job satisfaction is a must in any organization, since employees with low level of job satisfaction create a lot of unwanted and adverse behaviors within the organization; like for example wasting the organization working hours doing some personal duties, emotional and actual retirements from their jobs, and other changes that change the work environment (Camp, 1994) in (Getahun, Sims Hummer: 1). Some other negative results is related with low level of job satisfaction such as the early withdrawals, absenteeism and attendance problems, and the absence of involvement in job tasks. Overview on organizational commitment Many researchers concentrated on the association between employees job satisfaction and organizational commitment. They showed that job role encounter and uncertainty have no effect on the organizational commitment in law, but they revealed the presence of the positive relationship between organizational commitment and leader provision, group cohesiveness and promotion chances (Jaramillo, Nixon Sams, 2005). Definition of organizational commitment Organization commitment and job commitment have been studied (Koslowsky, 1990: 167-168). Organization commitment can be simply defined as the level at which the employee attracted to the organization while job commitment is the level at which the employee attracted to the job (Bashaw; Grant 1994: 43). Job commitment describes how people feel towards their duties and tasks. One can be committed to the organization without being committed to his job and vice versa (Freund; Zahavy, 2007: 322). Workers can be more satisfied with their jobs and loyal to their organization by raising their empowerment as a result they will improve their performance as well as the organizations performance (Gallie et al, 2009: 2). Types of organizational commitment There are three types of organizational commitment; affective, continuous, and normative. In the words of Allen and Meyer (1990: 3) employees with strong affective commitment remain because they want to, those with strong continuance commitment because they need to, and those with strong normative commitment because they feel they ought to do so. Affective commitment According to (Solinger, Olffen Roe, 2008: 72) affective commitment was defined as the sentimental link between the employee and the organization, in which the employee is attached to the company; it also comprises employees involvement in the organization as well as their identification with it. Affective commitment represents satisfied and pleased feelings of employees towards their jobs. Indeed affective commitment can be described as the willingness of the employee to stay in the organization because he wants to as said by Allen and Meyer (1990: 3). Also (Turner Chelladurai, 2005:195) agreed that affective commitment imitates an emotional affection to the organization as an objective not to the action of staying or leaving the organization. Consequently, affective commitment greatest prognosticator is the emotional agreeable involvement of work. Continuance commitment Continuous commitment was defined by (Solinger, Olffen Roe, 2008: 72) as the supplementary cost paid by the employee after leaving the company, this resembles with the utilitarian outcomes that consists of penalties and rewards that are supposed to follow from engaging in the behaviour (Eagly Chaiken, 1993: 209). Continuous commitment is the attitude toward a behaviour not headed for the organization. It reveals the deliberation of outcomes of action whether to remain or leave in the organization. In other words as Meyer Allen (1990) that employee with a strong continuous commitment remain in the organization because he needs to. Normative commitment Normative commitment is the state of the employee where he feels responsible to stay in the organization (Solinger, Olffen Roe, 2008: 72). Normative outcomes concern to approval or disapproval that significant others are expected to express after performing the behaviour as well as the self-administered rewards (pride) and punishments (guilt) that follow from internalized moral rules (Solinger, Olffen Roe, 2008: 72) In fact employees that are characterized by normative commitment feel that they should stay in the organization and that they have to carry on their work. Normative commitment is a value where similarity between employees and organizational values might take place. (Turner Chelladurai, 2005:195) Factors affect organizational commitment Chen, Silverthorne Hung (2005) mentioned that not only the job stress that affects the level of organizational commitment but also organizational communication has a substantial and affirmative relationship with organizational commitment. They also found that organizational intervention and personal predisposition can influence organizational commitment. Organizational intervention Personal predisposition Importance of organizational commitment One of the key factors that affect productivity is organizational commitment that increases the performance that leads to a higher productivity as well as the employees are loyal and committed to their jobs in addition to job satisfaction. Therefore organizational commitment leads to the job satisfaction and motivation which affect productivity (Eaton, 2003: 148). (Gallie et al 2009) also believed that workers who are highly committed to their organizations can increase their results because they will be more likely to work hard, they may also decrease their absence as for example in Google organization people are less likely to be absent because they are highly committed to their jobs and organizations and they may not leave their jobs. In contrast employees who have no other choices rather than staying in the organization may have a negative effect on productivity as he is not committed to his organization or to his job in addition he may affect his other employees resulting in fewer outcomes (Eaton, 2003: 148). The impact of job stress on job satisfaction and organizational commitment Many researchers found that in one hand, job stress is indirectly proportional with job satisfaction. On the other hand, they found that between organizational commitment and job satisfaction positive relationship. As a result, it is rational to have a negative relationship between job stress and organizational commitment (Khatibi, Asadi and Hamidi, 2009:273). Low organizational commitment Many researchers concluded in their researches that there is a significant relationship between job stress and the whole organizational commitment. Extra investigation displays that there is also a relationship between the affective and continuous commitment with job stress but they didnt find any clear link between job stress and normative commitment (Ziauddin et al, 2010: 617). While Somers on the other hand stated that there is a relationship between affective and normative commitment with job stress, but no clear link between continuous commitment and job stress. Also Khatibi, Asadi Hamidi (2009: 272) agreed with Somers that there is a negative significant relationship between job stress and organizational commitment, affective commitment and normative commitment, but there was not a significant relationship between job stress and continuance commitment. Lee et al stated that there is an adverse relation between job stress and organizational commitment, while wells et al (2009) on the other hand revealed in his study that there is a positive relationship between job stress and organizational commitment and an adverse relationship between job stress and job commitment. Yaghoubi et al disagreed with all these relations and declared that there is no significant relationship between organizational commitment and job stress, he then added that it is important for any organization to have healthy and committed employees as well as sport organizations as ther are not exceptions. Job dissatisfaction and termination of employee In the short run, job stress will reduce job satisfaction that results in decreasing the rate of absences of the employees. Absenteeism is the reaction of the employees towards the feeling of being dissatisfied. While in the long run, being dissatisfied will have a huge result in increasing the rate of turnover. On the other hand, some employees may not leave the company as they buildup financial interest which will be so difficult for them to quit the job and these financial interests may include wages, encouragements and it might be the only return to the employees family (Baker College, 2004:36). So whenever the employees are satisfied and committed to the organization they will have a lower tendency to leave it (Ziauddin, 2010:618). Stress affect organizational outcome Some researchers discovered that the previous and the significance of the lower job stress leads to a higher job satisfaction and higher organizational commitment, since it will give them the feeling that the job met expectations (Moncrief et al, 1996) they also added that employees will have a lower tendency to leave the organization when they are highly satisfied and committed to the organization. (Elangovan, 2001) indicates that there are durable fundamental relations between job stress and satisfaction (where the higher the job stress the lower the job satisfaction), and between job satisfaction and organizational commitment (the lower the job satisfaction the lower the organizational commitment). He also stated that there is a mutual association between organizational commitment and turnover goals (lower organizational commitment leads to a great intention to quit). Stress is linked with some negative effects in the workplace some of them are the lack of interest for work, organization, and colleagues. It also includes absence of creativity, loss of duties, reduced effectiveness, increased inflexibility of thinking, and decreased the ability of performing (Fairbrother and Warn, 2003: 9). Job stress is related with significant occupational consequences of job satisfaction, organizational commitment and the withdrawal behaviour of the employees (Sullivan Bhagat, 1992). Organizational commitment and job satisfaction regularly report an adverse relationship with the intent to leave and turnover (Hollenbeck and Williams, 1986). According to Fairbrother and Warn (2003: 9) they stated that organizational commitment and job satisfaction have repeatedly negative relationship to intent to quit and leave the organization, since high level of job stress most of the time connected to the low level of commitment and satisfaction. The major predictive effect of dissatisfaction is job stress and it will have a great tendency to leave the organization (Landsbergis, 1988; Terry et al., 1993) Methodology In order to test the mentioned hypotheses, a quantitative method should be applied which includes questionnaires and interviews. Since we are aiming to examine the effect of job stress on job satisfaction and organizational commitment, a questionnaire will be a valid tool to draw statistical conclusions. The questionnaire will be distributed in two private manufactories one for clothing while the other one for paper and cardboards. Thus a structured face-to-face questionnaire is needed where the interviewer presents the items orally in order to clarify the main purpose of the study and the meaning of the questions, because most of labors are illiterate. The sample of the study will consist of two hundred Egyptian employees working in private manufactories in Egypt, specifically in Cairo for convenience. We chose private manufactories due to the easy access to them in order to distribute the questionnaire, because it will be much more difficult to distribute the questionnaire in public organizations or

Concept of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) Essay -- essays researc

Concept of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) Voice over Internet Protocol, commonly known as VoIP, is a technology used for the transmission of voice information using the Internet Protocol (IP). VoIP allows the sending of voice information in a digital form using packets as opposed to the traditional circuit-committed protocols of the Public Switched Telephone network (PSTN). Traditionally when one wishes to make a phone call, a call is placed using a telephone that is connected to a circuit-switched network. In a circuit switched network, network resources are static; the network resources are allocated from the sender to the receiver before the start of the voice transmission. Two points are connected in both directions thus creating a â€Å"circuit†. The resources remain dedicated to the circuit during the entire transfer and the entire voice transmission follows the same path, this is the foundation of the PSTN. Up until circa 1960, every call had a dedicated wiring stretching from one end of the call to the other for the duration of the call. An example of this essential physical connection is a call from New York to Los Angeles required all the switches to connect pieces of copper wire between the two points for the entire duration of the call. Naturally this was expensive due to the resources in use. Telephone conversations today are somewhat more efficient and cost a lot less. The voice transmission is digitized, and along with thousands of other phone calls can ...

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Each night without fail our eyes grow heavy and our minds tired, and dreaming we drag ourselves to bed and normally fall asleep quickly and peacefully off to dream land we go. Why is this though? Why do we sleep every night? Why do we awake with dream fresh in our heads? How important is this most basic human routine to our survival? What happens when it is disturbed? Sleeping is extremely important for all mammals, but humans especially. Without sleep we are unable to function properly and at our fullest abilities. When we sleep we grow, and it is an opportunity for us to dream which has many benefits. Sleep is also a way for us to relieve ourselves of stress. Sleeping is a very unique process, performed only by creature with brains that have evolved considerably. Sleeping is a process of the brain performed by the brain for the brain (1). Which basically means that everything that happens during sleep is a result of the brain, and the reason it happens is because the brain needs it to. Sleep is so unique that it is impossible to mentally feign sleep (1). Even though we look as though we have entirely shut down when we sleep, we have not. The human brain is extremely active during all stages of sleep. This has been demonstrated countless times by monitoring the electrical activity of a sleeping person. Little was known about sleep until the nineteenth century, although many great scholars and philosophers from various countries had wondered about sleep and even tried to study sleep throughout the ages, they were unsuccessful because they simply lacked the proper technology to understand the major role that the brain plays in sleep. Some had even speculated that the brain was a part of sleep but they just had no way to res... ...unt of time that we spend in REM sleep, and NREM will increase after physical exertion (2). REM sleep it is extremely important because it is during REM sleep that most dreams occur and it is also when the dreams are more vivid compared to the few dreams that occur in NREM sleep (2). During REM sleep the brain is so active that it looks as though a person is awake, especially the area that correspond to imagery and emotion. During REM the body becomes very still, this is referred to as REM-sleep paralysis and is most like to prevent us from physically acting out our dreams, a potentially dangerous activity. When this fails to happen people become violent and thrash around or jump out of bed, and can attack people they are sleeping with, this is a condition called REM behavior disorder. On the opposite end of REM behavior disorder is an equally scary experience.